THE VEDIC CULTURE IN INDIA
THE VEDIC CULTURE IN INDIA
The cities of the Harappan Culture had
declined by 1500 B.C. Consequently, their economic and administrative system
had slowly declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language,
Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region. Initially
they would have come in small numbers through the passes in the northwestern
mountains. Their initial settlements were in the valleys of the north-west and
the plains of the Punjab. Later, they moved into Indo-Gangetic plains. As they
were mainly a cattlekeeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures. By
6th century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was referred to
as Aryavarta. This period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C may be divided into the
Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic
Period (1000B.C 600 B.C).
The Original Home of the Aryans :
The original home of the Aryans is
a debatable question and there are several views. Different scholars have identified
differentregions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic
region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala Gangadhara Tilak argues
that the Aryans came from the Arctic region on astronomical calculations.
However, the theory of southern Russia appears to be more probable and widely
accepted by historians. From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia
and Europe. They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as
Indo-Aryans. They spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit.
The Vedic Literature :
The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the
root ‘vid’, which means to know. In other words, the term ‘Veda’ signifies
‘superior knowledge’. The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig,
Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and it
consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise of various gods. The
Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of
sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice.
It is called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in
it. The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals. Besides the Vedas, there are
other sacred works like the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the
epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to
prayer and sacrificial ceremony. The Upanishads are philosophical texts dealing
with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world and the
mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books and they deal with
mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices. The author of Ramayana was Valmiki
and that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas.
Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.) :
During the Rig Vedic period, the
Aryans were mostly confined to the Indus region. The Rig Veda refers to
Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of
Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and
Saraswathi. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people can
be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.
Political Organization :
The basic unit of political
organization was kula or family. Several families joined together on the basis
of their kinship to form a village or grama. The leader of grama was known as
gramani. A group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was
headed by vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas,
Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the kingdom was called as rajan or king.
The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was
hereditary. The king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander
of the army in his administration. There were two popular bodies called the
Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of elders and the
latter, a general assembly of the entire people.
Social Life :
The Rig Vedic society was
patriarchal. The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the
family was known as grahapathi. Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy
was prevalent among the royal and noble families. The wife took care of the
household and participated in all the major ceremonies. Women were given equal
opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. There
were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig
Vedic period. Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no
child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
Both men and women wore upper and
lower garments made of cotton and wool.
A variety of ornaments were used by both men and women. Wheat and barley, milk and its products like
curd and ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. The
eating of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal. Chariot
racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite pastimes. The
social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic period as it was in the
later Vedic period.
Economic Condition :
The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral
people and their main occupation was cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated
in terms of their cattle. When they permanently settled in North India they
began to practice agriculture. With the knowledge and use of iron they were
able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation. Carpentry was
another important profession and the availability of wood from the forests
cleared made the profession profitable. Carpenters produced chariots and
ploughs. Workers in metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and
iron. Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen fabrics
were made. Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments. The potters made various
kinds of vessels for domestic use. Trade was another important economic
activity and rivers served as important means of transport. Trade was conducted
on barter system. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used as
media of exchange in large transactions.
Religion :
The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the
natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these
natural forces into many gods and worshipped them. The important Rig Vedic gods
were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain)and Indra
(Thunder). Indra was the most popular
among them during the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni
who was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people. Varuna was
supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. There were also female gods
like Aditi and Ushas. There were no temples and no idol worship during the
early Vedic period. Prayers were offered to the gods in the expectation of
rewards. Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were followed during the
worship. Later
Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.) :
The Aryans further moved towards
east in the Later Vedic Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion
of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms
are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important development during
this period is the growth of large kingdoms. Kuru and Panchala kingdoms
flourished in the beginning. Parikshat and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of
Kuru kingdom. Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a
patron of learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like
Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler of Kasi was
Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. His
court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be
the easternmost tribal kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three
divisions of India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and
Dakshinapatha (southern India).
Political Organization :
Larger kingdoms were formed during
the later Vedic period. Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas
or rashtras in the later Vedic period. Hence the royal power hadincreased along
with the increase in the size of kingdom. The king performed various rituals
and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They include Rajasuya (consecration
ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). The kings also
assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth),
Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler). In the later Vedic period, a large number of new
officials were involved in the administration in addition to the existing
purohita, senani and gramani. They include the treasury officer, tax collector
and royal messenger. At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by
the village assemblies. The importance
of the Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period.
Economic Condition :
Iron was used extensively in this
period and this enabled the people to clear forests and to bring more land
under cultivation. Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of
implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat were
grown. Knowledge of manure was another improvement. Industrial activity became
more varied and there was greater specialization. Metal work, leather work,
carpentry and pottery made great progress. In addition to internal trade,
foreign trade became extensive. The Later Vedic people were familiar with the
sea and they traded with countries like Babylon. A class of hereditary
merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on trade and
commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known as ganas. Besides nishka
of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala were
used as media of exchange.
Social Life :
The four divisions of society
(Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly
established duringthe Later Vedic period. The two higher classes - Brahmana,
and Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisya and Sudra. A
Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but sometimes Kshatriyas
claimed a higher status over the Brahmins. Many sub-castes on the basis of
their occupation appeared in this period. In the family, the power of the
father increased during the Later Vedic period. There was no improvement in the
status of women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men.
Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages
had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described
as a source of misery. However, the women in the royal household enjoyed
certain privileges.
Religion :
Gods of the Early Vedic period like
Indra and Agni lost their importance.
Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the
destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic period. Sacrifices were still
important and the rituals connected with them became more elaborate. The
importance of prayers declined and that of sacrifices increased. Priesthood
became a profession and a hereditary one. The formulae for sacrifices were
invented and elaborated by the priestly class. Therefore, towards the end of
this period there was a strong reaction against priestly domination and against
sacrifices and rituals. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result
of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of the Upanishads, which is
the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and
insisted on true knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation.
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